@2024 Afarand., IRAN
ISSN: 2383-3483 Journal of Police Medicine 2018;7(4):141-146
ISSN: 2383-3483 Journal of Police Medicine 2018;7(4):141-146
Investigation of Drugs in the Negative Urine Samples; A Case Study in One of the Laboratories of Tehran
ARTICLE INFO
Article Type
Original ResearchAuthors
Saberian M. (*)Kashani GH. (1)
(*) Applied Research Center, Behdad Deputy, Tehran, Iran
(1) Police Central Laboratory of Drugs Abuse Investigation, Behdad Deputy, Tehran, Iran
Correspondence
Address: Behdad-e NAJA, Edward Brown Street, Kargar Avenue, Enghelab Square, Tehran, IranPhone: +98 (21) 63982235
Fax: +98 (21) 63982161
msbpharmd@yahoo.com
Article History
Received: March 12, 2018Accepted: August 27, 2018
ePublished: September 29, 2018
ABSTRACT
Aims
The spread of drug use is one of the worries that governments are facing today, and Iran is no exception to this rule. Increasing drug discovery and spreading the diversity of these drugs, especially psychotropic drugs, highlights the need for a coherent program to increase the effectiveness of current methods of identifying drug users. Currently, only 3 drugs, including morphine, methamphetamine, and amphetamine are present in the drug screening program in Iran. The aim of this study was to identify narcotics that are not commonly used in conventional monitoring.
Materials & Methods The present study was conducted on 153 urine samples that had been identified as negative by the current drug identification method in one of the diagnostic laboratories of Tehran. The urines were investigated by Randox biochip technology based on antigen-antibody interaction.
Findings Of 153 samples, 1, 2, 3, 12, 3, 3, 8, 6, and 9 urines were contaminated by barbiturates, methamphetamine, morphine, benzodiazepines, buprenorphine, Ecstasy, methadone, cannabinoids, and tricyclic antidepressants, respectively. No urine was investigated by cocaine and amphetamine contamination.
Conclusion The current method used in drug screening is not an efficient and comprehensive way for all types of drugs.
Materials & Methods The present study was conducted on 153 urine samples that had been identified as negative by the current drug identification method in one of the diagnostic laboratories of Tehran. The urines were investigated by Randox biochip technology based on antigen-antibody interaction.
Findings Of 153 samples, 1, 2, 3, 12, 3, 3, 8, 6, and 9 urines were contaminated by barbiturates, methamphetamine, morphine, benzodiazepines, buprenorphine, Ecstasy, methadone, cannabinoids, and tricyclic antidepressants, respectively. No urine was investigated by cocaine and amphetamine contamination.
Conclusion The current method used in drug screening is not an efficient and comprehensive way for all types of drugs.
CITATION LINKS
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[32]Pohland A, Boaz HE, Sullivan HR. Synthesis and identification of metabolites resulting from the biotransformation of DL-methadone in man and in the rat. J Med Chem. 1971;14(3):194-7.
[33]Archer RA, Blanchard WB, Day WA, Johnson DW, Lavagnino ER, Ryan CW, et al. Cannabinoids. 3. Synthetic approaches to 9-ketocannabinoids; Total synthesis of nabilone. J Org Chem. 1977;42(13):2277-84.
[34] Substance-Abuse Testing Committee. Critical issues in urinalysis of abused substances: report of the Substance-Abuse Testing Committee. Clin Chem. 1988;34(3):605-32.
[35]Walsh JM, Flegel R, Crouch DJ, Cangianelli L, Baudys J. An evaluation of rapid point-of-collection oral fluid drug-testing devices. J Anal Toxicol. 2003;27(7):429-39.
[36]Huestis MA1, Mitchell JM, Cone EJ. Detection times of marijuana metabolites in urine by immunoassay and GC-MS. J Anal Toxicol. 1995;19(6):443-9.
[37]Eskridge KD, Guthrie SK. Clinical issues associated with urine testing of substances of abuse. Pharmacotherapy. 1997;17(3):497-510.
[38]Wu AH, Onigbinde TA, Johnson KG, Wimbish GH. Alcohol-specific cocaine metabolites in serum and urine of hospitalized patients. J Anal Toxicol. 1992;16(2):132-6.
[39]Zhang JY, Foltz RL Cocaine metabolism in man: identification of four previously unreported cocaine metabolites in human urine. J Anal Toxicol. 1990;14(4):201-5.
[2]Pidd K, Roche AM. How effective is drug testing as a workplace safety strategy? A systematic review of the evidence. Accid Anal Prev. 2014;71:154-65.
[3]Pidd K, Kostadinov V, Roche A. Do workplace policies work? An examination of the relationship between alcohol and other drug policies and workers' substance use. Int J Drug Policy. 2016;28:48-54.
[4]O’Farrell B. Lateral flow immunoassay systems: Evolution from the current state of the art to the next generation of highly sensitive, quantitative rapid assays [Chapter 2.4]. Wild D, editor. In: The immunoassay handbook. 4th Edition. Oxford: Elsevier Science; 2013. pp. 89-107.
[5]Tiplady S. Lateral flow and consumer diagnostics [Chapter 7.3]. Wild D, editor. In: The immunoassay handbook. 4th Edition. Oxford: Elsevier Science; pp. 533-6.
[6]Posthuma-Trumpie GA, Korf J, van Amerongen A. Lateral flow (immuno)assay: its strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. A literature survey. Anal Bioanal Chem. 2009;393(2):569-82.
[7]Wong RC, Harley YT. Quantitative, false positive, and false negative issues for lateral flow immunoassays as exemplified by onsite drug screens. In: Lateral flow immunoassay. New York City: Springer; 2009. pp. 1-19.
[8]Hajhashemi V, Minaiyan M, Saberian-Boroojeni M. In vitro and in vivo interaction of oral contraceptive high dose (HD) with urine morphine diagnostic test. Physiol Pharmacol. 2007;11(1):68-75. [Persian]
[9]Khajeamiri AR, Saberian M. Identifying salt profiling of methamphetamine that were discovered in 2014 in Iran. Polic Med. 2016;4(4):269-78. [Persian]
[10]Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Analytes and their cutoffs [Internet]. Rockville, Maryland: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA); 2018 [cited 2018 March]. Available from: https://www.samhsa.gov/sites/default/files/workplace/2010GuidelinesAnalytesCutoffs.pdf.
[11]Melanson SE. The utility of immunoassays for urine drug testing. Clin Lab Med. 2012;32(3):429-47.
[12]Nelson ZJ, Stellpflug SJ, Engebretsen KM. What can a urine drug screening immunoassay really tell us?. J Pharm Pract. 2015;29(5):516-26.
[13]Milone MC. Laboratory testing for prescription opioids. J Med Toxicol. 2012;8(4):408-16.
[14]Reisfield GM, Salazar E, Bertholf RL. Rational use and interpretation of urine drug testing in chronic opioid therapy. Ann Clin Lab Sci. 2007;37(4): 301-14.
[15]Simpson D, Braithwaite RA, Jarvie DR, Stewart MJ, Walker S, Watson IW, et al. Screening for drugs of abuse (II): Cannabinoids, lysergic acid diethylamide, buprenorphine, methadone, barbiturates, benzodiazepines and other drugs. Ann Clin Biochem. 1997: 34(Pt 5):460-510.
[16]Alcocer M. List of contributors. In: The immunoassay handbook (Fourth Edition). Oxford: Elsevier Science; 2013. pp. xvii-xix.
[17]Dunbar SA, Hoffmeyer MR. Microsphere-Based Multiplex Immunoassays: Development and Applications Using Luminex® xMAP® Technology [Chapter 2.9]. Wild D, editor. In: The immunoassay handbook. 4th Edition. Oxford: Elsevier Science; 2013. pp. 157-74.
[18]Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). Drug testing [Internet]. Rockville, Maryland: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA); 2018 [cited 2018 March]. Available from: https://www.samhsa.gov/workplace/drug-testing.
[19]Wolff K, Garretty D, Hay AW. Micro-extraction of commonly abused benzodiazepines for urinary screening by liquid chromatography. Ann Clin Biochem. 1997;34( Pt 1):61-7.
[20]Linder MW, Keck PE Jr. Standards of laboratory practice: Antidepressant drug monitoring. National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry. Clin Chem. 1998;44(5):1073-84.
[21] Pankey S, Collins C, Jaklitsch A, Izutsu A, Hu M, Pirio M, et al. Quantitative homogeneous enzyme immunoassays for amitriptyline, nortriptyline, imipramine, and desipramine. Clin Chem. 1986;32(5):768-72.
[22]Power BM, Hackett LP, Dusci LJ, Ilett KF. Antidepressant toxicity and the need for identification and concentration monitoring in overdose. Clin Pharmacokinet. 1995;29(3):154-71.
[23]Scoggins BA, Maguire KP, Norman TR, Burrows GD. Measurement of tricyclic antidepressants. Part II. Applications of methodology. Clin Chem. 1980;26(7):805-15.
[24] Walberg CB, Gupta RC. Quantitation of phencyclidine in urine by enzyme immunoassay. J Analy Toxicol. 1982;6(2): 97-9.
[25]Cirimele V, Kintz P, Lohner S, Ludes B. Enzyme immunoassay validation for the detection of buprenorphine in urine. J Analy Toxicol. 2003;27(2): 103-5.
[26]Miller EI, Torrance HJ, Oliver JS. Validation of the Immunalysis microplate ELISA for the detection of buprenorphine and its metabolite norbuprenorphine in urine. J Analy Toxicol. 2006;30(2):115-9.
[27]Drug Enforcment Administration. US Drug Enforcment Administration MDMA (Ecstasy) information [Internet]. US: Drug Enforcment Administration; 2017. Available from: http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/concern/mdma.html.
[28]Kunsman GW, Levine B, Kuhlman JJ, Jones RL, Hughes RO, Fujiyama CI, et al. MDA-MDMA concentrations in urine specimens. J Anal Toxicol. 1996;20(7):517-21.
[29]Doblin R. A clinical plan for MDMA (Ecstasy) in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD): partnering with the FDA. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2002;34(2):185-94.
[30]Zamani S, Farnia M, Tavakoli S, Gholizadeh M, Nazari M, Seddighi AA, et al. A qualitative inquiry into methadone maintenance treatment for opioid-dependent prisoners in Tehran, Iran. Int J Drug Policy. 2010;21(3):167-72.
[31]Gerevich J. Drug and alcohol abuse: A clinical guide to diagnosis and treatment. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2007;61(2):173-4.
[32]Pohland A, Boaz HE, Sullivan HR. Synthesis and identification of metabolites resulting from the biotransformation of DL-methadone in man and in the rat. J Med Chem. 1971;14(3):194-7.
[33]Archer RA, Blanchard WB, Day WA, Johnson DW, Lavagnino ER, Ryan CW, et al. Cannabinoids. 3. Synthetic approaches to 9-ketocannabinoids; Total synthesis of nabilone. J Org Chem. 1977;42(13):2277-84.
[34] Substance-Abuse Testing Committee. Critical issues in urinalysis of abused substances: report of the Substance-Abuse Testing Committee. Clin Chem. 1988;34(3):605-32.
[35]Walsh JM, Flegel R, Crouch DJ, Cangianelli L, Baudys J. An evaluation of rapid point-of-collection oral fluid drug-testing devices. J Anal Toxicol. 2003;27(7):429-39.
[36]Huestis MA1, Mitchell JM, Cone EJ. Detection times of marijuana metabolites in urine by immunoassay and GC-MS. J Anal Toxicol. 1995;19(6):443-9.
[37]Eskridge KD, Guthrie SK. Clinical issues associated with urine testing of substances of abuse. Pharmacotherapy. 1997;17(3):497-510.
[38]Wu AH, Onigbinde TA, Johnson KG, Wimbish GH. Alcohol-specific cocaine metabolites in serum and urine of hospitalized patients. J Anal Toxicol. 1992;16(2):132-6.
[39]Zhang JY, Foltz RL Cocaine metabolism in man: identification of four previously unreported cocaine metabolites in human urine. J Anal Toxicol. 1990;14(4):201-5.