@2024 Afarand., IRAN
ISSN: 2252-0805 The Horizon of Medical Sciences 2017;23(4):257-263
ISSN: 2252-0805 The Horizon of Medical Sciences 2017;23(4):257-263
Simultaneous Effect of High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and Consumption of Flaxseed on Serum Levels of TNF-α and IL1β in Rats
ARTICLE INFO
Article Type
Original ResearchAuthors
Khademi Y. (*)Azarbayjani M.A. (1)
Hosseini S.A. (2)
(*) Physical Education Department, Physical Education Faculty, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
(1) Sport Physiology Department, Physical Education Faculty, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
(2) Sport Physiology Department, Human Science Faculty, Marvdasht Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran
Correspondence
Address: Physical Education Department, Physical Education Faculty, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran Zamin Street, Tehran, IranPhone: +98 (71) 43112201
Fax: +98 (71) 43311172
youneskhademi3@gmail.com
Article History
Received: November 9, 2016Accepted: March 13, 2017
ePublished: September 28, 2017
ABSTRACT
Aims
The high concentration of Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and Tumor Necrosis
Factor- α (TNF-α) is an important risk factor for developing cardiovascular
disease. The purpose of this study was to investigate the simultaneous effect of
High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and the use of flaxseed oil with different
doses on the serum levels of TNF-α and IL1β in rats.
Materials & Methods In this experimental study, 30 Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups: control, training, 10mg/kg supplement, 30mg/kg supplement, training with 10mg/kg supplement and training with 30mg/kg supplement. The groups performed High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) for 10 weeks and received flaxseed oil extracts. Data were analyzed by one way ANOVA and LSD post hoc test.
Findings Serum levels of IL1β in the training group and training groups with doses of 10 and 30mg/kg of extract were significantly lower than the control group. Serum levels of IL1β in the training group with 30mg/kg of extract, was significantly lower than group with 10mg/kg of extract. Also, serum levels of TNF-α in the training group, training groups with doses of 10 and 30mg/kg of extract and group with 30mg/kg of extract were significantly lower than the control group. Serum levels of TNF-α in the training group with 30mg/kg of extract were significantly lower than other groups (p<0.05).
Conclusion High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and consumption of flaxseed oil for 10 weeks have interactive effects on reduction of serum levels of TNF-α and IL-1β in rats.
Materials & Methods In this experimental study, 30 Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups: control, training, 10mg/kg supplement, 30mg/kg supplement, training with 10mg/kg supplement and training with 30mg/kg supplement. The groups performed High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) for 10 weeks and received flaxseed oil extracts. Data were analyzed by one way ANOVA and LSD post hoc test.
Findings Serum levels of IL1β in the training group and training groups with doses of 10 and 30mg/kg of extract were significantly lower than the control group. Serum levels of IL1β in the training group with 30mg/kg of extract, was significantly lower than group with 10mg/kg of extract. Also, serum levels of TNF-α in the training group, training groups with doses of 10 and 30mg/kg of extract and group with 30mg/kg of extract were significantly lower than the control group. Serum levels of TNF-α in the training group with 30mg/kg of extract were significantly lower than other groups (p<0.05).
Conclusion High-Intensity Interval Training (HIIT) and consumption of flaxseed oil for 10 weeks have interactive effects on reduction of serum levels of TNF-α and IL-1β in rats.
CITATION LINKS
[1]Blake GJ, Ridker PM. Inflammatory bio-markers and cardiovascular risk prediction. J Int Med. 2002;252(4):283-94.
[2]Blake GJ, Ridker PM. Novel clinical markers of vascular wall inflammation. Circ Res. 2001;89 (9):763-71.
[3]Geffken DF, Cushman M, Burke GL, Polak JF, Sakkinen PA, Tracy RP. Association between physical activity and markers of inflammation in a healthy elderly population. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;153(3):242-50.
[4]Rohde LE, Hennekens CH, Ridker PM. Cross-sectional study of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and cardiovascular risk factors in apparently healthy men. Arterioscler Throm Vasc Biol. 1999;19(7):1595-9.
[5]Signorelli SS, Mazzarino MC, Di Pino L, Malaponte G, Porto C, Pennisi G, et al. High circulating levels of cytokines (IL-6 and TNFalpha), adhesion molecules (VCAM-1 and ICAM-1) and selectins in patients with peripheral arterial disease at rest and after a treadmill test. Vasc Med. 2003;8(1):15-9.
[6]Tousoulis D, Davies G, Stefanadis C, Toutouzas P, Ambrose JA. Inflammatory and thrombotic mechanisms in coronary atherosclerosis. Heart. 2003;89(9):993-7.
[7]Kargarfard M, Lam ET, Shariat A, Asle Mohammadi M, Afrasiabi S, Shaw I, et al. Effects of endurance and high intensity training on ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 levels and arterial pressure in obese and normal weight adolescents. Physsician Sportsmed. 2016;44(3):208-16.
[8]Goldhammer E, Tanchilevitch A, Maor I, Beniamini Y, Rosenschein U, Sagiv M. Exercise training modulates cytokines activity in coronary heart disease patients. Int J Cardiol. 2005;100(1):93-9.
[9]Nemet D, Hong S, Mills PJ, Ziegler MG, Hill M, Cooper DM. Systemic vs. local cytokine and leukocyte responses to unilateral wrist flexion exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2002;93(2):546-54.
[10]Ziccardi P, Nappo F, Giugliano G, Esposito K, Marfella R, Cioffi M, et al. Reduction of inflammatory cytokine concentrations and improvement of endothelial functions in obese women after weight loss over one year. Circulation. 2002;105(7):804-9.
[11]Adamopoulos S, Parissis J, Kroupis C, Georgiadis M, Karatzas D, Karavolias G, et al. Physical training reduces peripheral markers of inflammation in patients with chronic heart failure. Eur Heart J. 2001;22(9):791-7.
[12]Nassis GP, Papantakou K, Skenderi K, Triandafillopoulou M, Kavouras SA, Yannakoulia M, et al. Aerobic exercise training improves insulin sensitivity without changes in body weight, body fat, adiponectin, and inflammatory markers in overweight and obese girls. Metabolism. 2005;54(11):1472- 9.
[13]Ding YH, Young CN, Luan X, Li J, Rafols JA, Clark JC, et al. Exercise preconditioning ameliorates inflammatory injury in ischemic rats during reperfusion. Acta Neuropathol. 2005;109(3):237-46.
[14]Wang RY, Yang YR, Yu SM. Protective effects of treadmill training on infarction in rats. Brain Res. 2001;922(1):140-3.
[15]Mogharnasi M, Gaeini A.A, Javadi E, Kordi MR, Ravasi AA, Sheikholeslami vatani D. The Effect Of Endurance Training On Inflammatory Biomarkers & Lipid Profiles in Wistar Rats. World J Sport Sci. 2009;2(2):82-8.
[16]Aviram M. Interaction of oxidized low density lipoprotein with macrophages in atherosclerosis, and the antiatherogenicity of antioxidants. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1996;34(8):599- 608.
[17]Farahpour M.R, Taghikhani H, Habibi M, Zandieh M.A. Wound healing activity of flaxseed linum usitatissimum L in rat. African J Pharm Pharm. 2011;5(21):2386-9.
[18]Zuk M, Kulma A, Dyminska L, Szoltysek K, Prescha A, Hanuza J, et al. Flavonoid engineering of flax potentiate its biotechnological application. BMC Biotechnol. 2011;11:10.
[19]Sneddon AA, Tsofliou F, Fyfe CL, Matheson I, Jackson DM, Horgan G, et al. Effect of a conjugated linoleic acid and omega-3 fatty acid mixture on body composition and adiponectin. Obesity. 2008;16(5):1019-24.
[20]Connor SL, Connor WE. Are fish oils beneficial in the prevention and treatment of coronary artery disease? Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66(Suppl 4):1020S-31S.
[21]Romieu I, Garcia-Esteban R, Sunyer J, Rios C, Alcaraz-Zubeldia M, Velasco SR, et al. The effect of supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on markers of oxidative stress in elderly exposed to PM(2.5). Envir Health Perspect. 2008;116(9):1237-42.
[22]Deng Y, Zhang CH, Zhang HN. Effects of chaihu shugan powder on the behavior and expressions of BDNF and TrkB in the hippocampus, amygdala, and the frontal lobe in rat model of depression. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi. 2011;31(10):1373-8.
[23]Chytilova M, Mudronova D, Nemcova R, Gancarcikova S, Buleca V, Koscova J, et al. Anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects of flax-seed oil and Lactobacillus plantarum - Biocenol LP96 in gnotobiotic pigs challenged with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Res Vet Sci. 2013;95(1):103-9.
[24]Chytilova M, Nemcova R, Gancarcikova S, Mudronova D, Tkacikova L. Flax-seed oil and Lactobacillus plantarum supplementation modulate TLR and NF-kappaB gene expression in enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli challenged gnotobiotic pigs. Acta Vet Hung. 2014;62(4):463-72.
[25]Green AG. Genetic control of polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in flax (Linum usitatissimum) seed oil. Theor Appl Genet. 1986;72(5):654-61.
[26]Tanna IR, Aghera HB, Ashok BK, Chandola HM. Protective role of Ashwagandharishta and flax seed oil against maximal electroshock induced seizures in albino rats. Ayu. 2012;33(1):114-8.
[27]Tuluce Y, Ozkol H, Koyuncu I. Photoprotective effect of flax seed oil (Linum usitatissimum L.) against ultraviolet C-induced apoptosis and oxidative stress in rats. Toxicol Ind Health. 2012;28(2):99- 107.
[28]Williams D, Verghese M, Walker LT, Boateng J, Shackelford L, Chawan CB. Flax seed oil and flax seed meal reduce the formation of aberrant crypt foci (ACF) in azoxymethane-induced colon cancer in Fisher 344 male rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2007;45(1):153-9.
[29]Mirfatahi M, Tabibi H, Nasrollahi A, Hedayati M, Taghizadeh M. Effect of flaxseed oil on serum systemic and vascular inflammation markers and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients: a randomized controlled trial. Int Urol Nephrol. 2016;48(8):1335-41.
[30]Ren GY, Chen CY, Chen GC, Chen WG, Pan A, Pan C-W, et al. Effect of Flaxseed Intervention on Inflammatory Marker C-Reactive Protein: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2016;8(3):136.
[31]Nounou HA, Deif MM, Shalaby MA. Effect of flaxseed supplementation and exercise training on lipid profile, oxidative stress and inflammation in rats with myocardial ischemia. Lipids Health Dis. 2012;11: 129.
[32]Burgomaster KA, Heigenhauser GJ, Gibala MJ. Effect of short-term sprint interval training on human skeletal muscle carbohydrate metabolism during exercise and time-trial performance. J Appl Physiol. 2006;100(6):2041-7.
[33]Burgomaster KA, Howarth KR, Phillips SM, Rakobowchuk M, Macdonald MJ, McGee SL, et al. Similar metabolic adaptations during exercise after low volume sprint interval and traditional endurance training in humans. J Physiol. 2008;586(1):151-60.
[34]Rodas G, Ventura JL, Cadefau JA, Cusso R, Parra J. A short training programme for the rapid improvement of both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2000;82(5-6):480-6.
[35]Wenger HA, Bell GJ. The interactions of intensity, frequency and duration of exercise training in altering cardiorespiratory fitness. Sports Med. 1986;3(5):346-56.
[36]Wisloff U, Ellingsen O, Kemi OJ. High-intensity interval training to maximize cardiac benefits of exercise training? Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2009;37(3):139-46.
[37]Whyte LJ, Gill JM, Cathcart AJ. Effect of 2 weeks of sprint interval training on health-related outcomes in sedentary overweight/obese men. Metabolism. 2010; 59(10):1421-8.
[38]Ciolac EG. High-intensity interval training and hypertension: maximizing the benefits of exercise?. Am J Cardiovasc Dis. 2012;2(2):102-10.
[39]Sanadgol N, Mostafaie A, Mansouri K, Bahrami G. Effect of palmitic acid and linoleic acid on expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 in human bone marrow endothelial cells (HBMECs). Arch Med Sci. 2012;8(2):192-8.
[40]Papageorgiou N, Tousoulis D, Psaltopoulou T, Giolis A, Antoniades C, Tsiamis E, et al. Divergent anti-inflammatory effects of different oil acute consumption on healthy individuals. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2011;65(4):514-9.
[41]Han H, Yan P, Chen L, Luo C, Gao H, Deng Q, et al. Flaxseed oil containing α-linolenic acid ester of plant sterol improved atherosclerosis in apoe deficient mice. Oxid Med Cel Longev. 2015;2015:958217
[42]W, Esselman WJ, Jump DB, Busik JV. Anti-inflammatory effect of docosahexaenoic acid on cytokine-induced adhesion molecule expression in human retinal vascular endothelial cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46(11):4342-7.
[43]Wang TM, CJ, Lee TS, Chao HY, Wu WH, Hsieh SC, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid attenuates VCAM-1 expression and NF-kappaB activation in TNF-alpha-treated human aortic endothelial cells. J Nut Biochem. 2011;22(2):187-94.
[44]De Winther MP, Kanters E, Kraal G, Hofker MH. Nuclear factor kappaB signaling in atherogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25(5):904-14.
[45]Jaudszus A, Krokowski M, Mockel P, Darcan Y, Avagyan A, Matricardi P, et al. Cis-9,trans-11-conjugated linoleic acid inhibits allergic sensitization and airway inflammation via a PPARgamma-related mechanism in mice. J Nutr. 2008;138(7):1336-42.
[46]Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Rifai N. C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(12):836-43.
[47]Spittle MA, Hoenich NA, Handelman GJ, Adhikarla R, Homel P, Levin NW. Oxidative stress and inflammation in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001;38(6):1408-13.
[48]Li H, Ruan XZ, Powis SH, Fernando R, Mon WY, Wheeler DC, et al. EPA and DHA reduce LPS-induced inflammation responses in HK-2 cells: evidence for a PPAR-gamma-dependent mechanism. Kidney Int. 2005;67(3):867-74.
[2]Blake GJ, Ridker PM. Novel clinical markers of vascular wall inflammation. Circ Res. 2001;89 (9):763-71.
[3]Geffken DF, Cushman M, Burke GL, Polak JF, Sakkinen PA, Tracy RP. Association between physical activity and markers of inflammation in a healthy elderly population. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;153(3):242-50.
[4]Rohde LE, Hennekens CH, Ridker PM. Cross-sectional study of soluble intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and cardiovascular risk factors in apparently healthy men. Arterioscler Throm Vasc Biol. 1999;19(7):1595-9.
[5]Signorelli SS, Mazzarino MC, Di Pino L, Malaponte G, Porto C, Pennisi G, et al. High circulating levels of cytokines (IL-6 and TNFalpha), adhesion molecules (VCAM-1 and ICAM-1) and selectins in patients with peripheral arterial disease at rest and after a treadmill test. Vasc Med. 2003;8(1):15-9.
[6]Tousoulis D, Davies G, Stefanadis C, Toutouzas P, Ambrose JA. Inflammatory and thrombotic mechanisms in coronary atherosclerosis. Heart. 2003;89(9):993-7.
[7]Kargarfard M, Lam ET, Shariat A, Asle Mohammadi M, Afrasiabi S, Shaw I, et al. Effects of endurance and high intensity training on ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 levels and arterial pressure in obese and normal weight adolescents. Physsician Sportsmed. 2016;44(3):208-16.
[8]Goldhammer E, Tanchilevitch A, Maor I, Beniamini Y, Rosenschein U, Sagiv M. Exercise training modulates cytokines activity in coronary heart disease patients. Int J Cardiol. 2005;100(1):93-9.
[9]Nemet D, Hong S, Mills PJ, Ziegler MG, Hill M, Cooper DM. Systemic vs. local cytokine and leukocyte responses to unilateral wrist flexion exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2002;93(2):546-54.
[10]Ziccardi P, Nappo F, Giugliano G, Esposito K, Marfella R, Cioffi M, et al. Reduction of inflammatory cytokine concentrations and improvement of endothelial functions in obese women after weight loss over one year. Circulation. 2002;105(7):804-9.
[11]Adamopoulos S, Parissis J, Kroupis C, Georgiadis M, Karatzas D, Karavolias G, et al. Physical training reduces peripheral markers of inflammation in patients with chronic heart failure. Eur Heart J. 2001;22(9):791-7.
[12]Nassis GP, Papantakou K, Skenderi K, Triandafillopoulou M, Kavouras SA, Yannakoulia M, et al. Aerobic exercise training improves insulin sensitivity without changes in body weight, body fat, adiponectin, and inflammatory markers in overweight and obese girls. Metabolism. 2005;54(11):1472- 9.
[13]Ding YH, Young CN, Luan X, Li J, Rafols JA, Clark JC, et al. Exercise preconditioning ameliorates inflammatory injury in ischemic rats during reperfusion. Acta Neuropathol. 2005;109(3):237-46.
[14]Wang RY, Yang YR, Yu SM. Protective effects of treadmill training on infarction in rats. Brain Res. 2001;922(1):140-3.
[15]Mogharnasi M, Gaeini A.A, Javadi E, Kordi MR, Ravasi AA, Sheikholeslami vatani D. The Effect Of Endurance Training On Inflammatory Biomarkers & Lipid Profiles in Wistar Rats. World J Sport Sci. 2009;2(2):82-8.
[16]Aviram M. Interaction of oxidized low density lipoprotein with macrophages in atherosclerosis, and the antiatherogenicity of antioxidants. Eur J Clin Chem Clin Biochem. 1996;34(8):599- 608.
[17]Farahpour M.R, Taghikhani H, Habibi M, Zandieh M.A. Wound healing activity of flaxseed linum usitatissimum L in rat. African J Pharm Pharm. 2011;5(21):2386-9.
[18]Zuk M, Kulma A, Dyminska L, Szoltysek K, Prescha A, Hanuza J, et al. Flavonoid engineering of flax potentiate its biotechnological application. BMC Biotechnol. 2011;11:10.
[19]Sneddon AA, Tsofliou F, Fyfe CL, Matheson I, Jackson DM, Horgan G, et al. Effect of a conjugated linoleic acid and omega-3 fatty acid mixture on body composition and adiponectin. Obesity. 2008;16(5):1019-24.
[20]Connor SL, Connor WE. Are fish oils beneficial in the prevention and treatment of coronary artery disease? Am J Clin Nutr. 1997;66(Suppl 4):1020S-31S.
[21]Romieu I, Garcia-Esteban R, Sunyer J, Rios C, Alcaraz-Zubeldia M, Velasco SR, et al. The effect of supplementation with omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on markers of oxidative stress in elderly exposed to PM(2.5). Envir Health Perspect. 2008;116(9):1237-42.
[22]Deng Y, Zhang CH, Zhang HN. Effects of chaihu shugan powder on the behavior and expressions of BDNF and TrkB in the hippocampus, amygdala, and the frontal lobe in rat model of depression. Zhongguo Zhong Xi Yi Jie He Za Zhi. 2011;31(10):1373-8.
[23]Chytilova M, Mudronova D, Nemcova R, Gancarcikova S, Buleca V, Koscova J, et al. Anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory effects of flax-seed oil and Lactobacillus plantarum - Biocenol LP96 in gnotobiotic pigs challenged with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli. Res Vet Sci. 2013;95(1):103-9.
[24]Chytilova M, Nemcova R, Gancarcikova S, Mudronova D, Tkacikova L. Flax-seed oil and Lactobacillus plantarum supplementation modulate TLR and NF-kappaB gene expression in enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli challenged gnotobiotic pigs. Acta Vet Hung. 2014;62(4):463-72.
[25]Green AG. Genetic control of polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis in flax (Linum usitatissimum) seed oil. Theor Appl Genet. 1986;72(5):654-61.
[26]Tanna IR, Aghera HB, Ashok BK, Chandola HM. Protective role of Ashwagandharishta and flax seed oil against maximal electroshock induced seizures in albino rats. Ayu. 2012;33(1):114-8.
[27]Tuluce Y, Ozkol H, Koyuncu I. Photoprotective effect of flax seed oil (Linum usitatissimum L.) against ultraviolet C-induced apoptosis and oxidative stress in rats. Toxicol Ind Health. 2012;28(2):99- 107.
[28]Williams D, Verghese M, Walker LT, Boateng J, Shackelford L, Chawan CB. Flax seed oil and flax seed meal reduce the formation of aberrant crypt foci (ACF) in azoxymethane-induced colon cancer in Fisher 344 male rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2007;45(1):153-9.
[29]Mirfatahi M, Tabibi H, Nasrollahi A, Hedayati M, Taghizadeh M. Effect of flaxseed oil on serum systemic and vascular inflammation markers and oxidative stress in hemodialysis patients: a randomized controlled trial. Int Urol Nephrol. 2016;48(8):1335-41.
[30]Ren GY, Chen CY, Chen GC, Chen WG, Pan A, Pan C-W, et al. Effect of Flaxseed Intervention on Inflammatory Marker C-Reactive Protein: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials. Nutrients. 2016;8(3):136.
[31]Nounou HA, Deif MM, Shalaby MA. Effect of flaxseed supplementation and exercise training on lipid profile, oxidative stress and inflammation in rats with myocardial ischemia. Lipids Health Dis. 2012;11: 129.
[32]Burgomaster KA, Heigenhauser GJ, Gibala MJ. Effect of short-term sprint interval training on human skeletal muscle carbohydrate metabolism during exercise and time-trial performance. J Appl Physiol. 2006;100(6):2041-7.
[33]Burgomaster KA, Howarth KR, Phillips SM, Rakobowchuk M, Macdonald MJ, McGee SL, et al. Similar metabolic adaptations during exercise after low volume sprint interval and traditional endurance training in humans. J Physiol. 2008;586(1):151-60.
[34]Rodas G, Ventura JL, Cadefau JA, Cusso R, Parra J. A short training programme for the rapid improvement of both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2000;82(5-6):480-6.
[35]Wenger HA, Bell GJ. The interactions of intensity, frequency and duration of exercise training in altering cardiorespiratory fitness. Sports Med. 1986;3(5):346-56.
[36]Wisloff U, Ellingsen O, Kemi OJ. High-intensity interval training to maximize cardiac benefits of exercise training? Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2009;37(3):139-46.
[37]Whyte LJ, Gill JM, Cathcart AJ. Effect of 2 weeks of sprint interval training on health-related outcomes in sedentary overweight/obese men. Metabolism. 2010; 59(10):1421-8.
[38]Ciolac EG. High-intensity interval training and hypertension: maximizing the benefits of exercise?. Am J Cardiovasc Dis. 2012;2(2):102-10.
[39]Sanadgol N, Mostafaie A, Mansouri K, Bahrami G. Effect of palmitic acid and linoleic acid on expression of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 in human bone marrow endothelial cells (HBMECs). Arch Med Sci. 2012;8(2):192-8.
[40]Papageorgiou N, Tousoulis D, Psaltopoulou T, Giolis A, Antoniades C, Tsiamis E, et al. Divergent anti-inflammatory effects of different oil acute consumption on healthy individuals. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2011;65(4):514-9.
[41]Han H, Yan P, Chen L, Luo C, Gao H, Deng Q, et al. Flaxseed oil containing α-linolenic acid ester of plant sterol improved atherosclerosis in apoe deficient mice. Oxid Med Cel Longev. 2015;2015:958217
[42]W, Esselman WJ, Jump DB, Busik JV. Anti-inflammatory effect of docosahexaenoic acid on cytokine-induced adhesion molecule expression in human retinal vascular endothelial cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005;46(11):4342-7.
[43]Wang TM, CJ, Lee TS, Chao HY, Wu WH, Hsieh SC, et al. Docosahexaenoic acid attenuates VCAM-1 expression and NF-kappaB activation in TNF-alpha-treated human aortic endothelial cells. J Nut Biochem. 2011;22(2):187-94.
[44]De Winther MP, Kanters E, Kraal G, Hofker MH. Nuclear factor kappaB signaling in atherogenesis. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005;25(5):904-14.
[45]Jaudszus A, Krokowski M, Mockel P, Darcan Y, Avagyan A, Matricardi P, et al. Cis-9,trans-11-conjugated linoleic acid inhibits allergic sensitization and airway inflammation via a PPARgamma-related mechanism in mice. J Nutr. 2008;138(7):1336-42.
[46]Ridker PM, Hennekens CH, Buring JE, Rifai N. C-reactive protein and other markers of inflammation in the prediction of cardiovascular disease in women. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(12):836-43.
[47]Spittle MA, Hoenich NA, Handelman GJ, Adhikarla R, Homel P, Levin NW. Oxidative stress and inflammation in hemodialysis patients. Am J Kidney Dis. 2001;38(6):1408-13.
[48]Li H, Ruan XZ, Powis SH, Fernando R, Mon WY, Wheeler DC, et al. EPA and DHA reduce LPS-induced inflammation responses in HK-2 cells: evidence for a PPAR-gamma-dependent mechanism. Kidney Int. 2005;67(3):867-74.