@2024 Afarand., IRAN

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ISSN: 2228-5468    Education Strategies in Medical Sciences 2015;7(6):425-435

Background
…[1-4] Instructional design can be considered as preparing specific maps on how to achieve educational goals [5]. ...[6]. Three main important theories of learning are Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism. Behavioral approaches focuses on the principles of strengthening, immediate feedback and small steps for learning tasks [7]. … [8,9] Cognitivists consider learning as an internal process and they believe that actions and activities of learners during learning experience affect the formation of cognitive structures [10]. Constructivism emphasizes on personal experiences and that the learning is best achieved by doing. From this perspective, learning is achieved through participation in group and is collective activities [9, 10]. …[11,12]. In order to decide about the more effective method of learning, the situation, the learner and the purposes of learning should be considered [13].
Previous Studies
In medical education, none of Behaviorism, Cognitivism and Constructivism learning theories is complete and each of them is mainly focused on specific type of learning [14]. Instructional design should move in a continuum of Constructivism and Behaviorism and act in an integrative manner according to the demands [15]. Many of interactions and e-learning methods are supported by behavioral approaches. In the field of e-learning, the active learning approaches are emphasized [16].
Aim(s)
The aim of this study was to evaluate the current instructional design models based on Behavioral, Cognitive and Constructive theories and to provide efficient combined model for efficient designing of e-learning environment.
Research type
This is a combined study.
Research society, place and time
Curriculum and technology instructors participated in this study.
Sampling method and number
Instructors were chosen based on purposive sampling.
Used devices&materials
A list of 55 instructional designs from the known models of instructional design was prepared. First, each of the models selected by sampling was described through extensive study of literature, and they were extensively investigated. In the second stage of learning, the three learning theories were explained in terms of their history, their evolution or decline and their impact on instructional design during their heyday; and in the third stage, the components and subcomponents of the model were extracted and a basic model was formed based on the matching characteristics and the strengths and weakness of instructional design in accordance with each theory and based on Isaac Candle model [17]. The initial model was given to the 7 instructors of curriculum and educational technology and after their review, the final model was formed. Evaluation of the model was performed using a questionnaire containing 135 questions and reliability of the model and its formal validity of the questionnaire were confirmed by the experts. Reliability of the questionnaire was 0.91 by Cronbach`s Alpha. This questionnaire included three areas including the purpose, components and the relationship between the elements of the model. In order to validate the model, the model was investigated by 18 experts in the domain of educational technology and curriculum planning. The results showed all components and subcomponents above the average score.
Findings by Text
The precise organization of the training course based on the predetermined purposes, the emphasis on great exercises, providing instant feedback and organizing activities and providing learning materials tailored to the learners` rate of learning, presentation of e-materials in small pieces, organizing electronic contents in linear and branching form based on the links and hyperlinks, emphasizing the obvious response of the learners, providing feedback immediately after the exercise, using a variety of reinforcements after the correct answers and evaluation of the amount of learning based on predetermined purposes, were among the application of behaviorism in designing e-learning environments. Concepts from cognitive psychology can be used in e-learning and important cases were as the followings: using advance organizers at the beginning of e-learning in order to create essential cognitive structure for learning new materials, using techniques of text bolding for drawing the attention, using concept mapping at the end of each section of contents and hyperlinking them, providing content according to learners` learning styles, informing learners of reasons for learning new materials which are inserted at the beginning of sections in e-learning content, necessary attention to the prerequisite of learning new content which is done through analyzing the subjects and determining the hierarchical structure of content, attention to the high levels of cognition including analysis, synthesis and evaluation during determining the learning objectives, and using the techniques that facilitate the transfer of learning. Principles of designing e-learning environments based on constructivism were as the followings: presenting the goals in terms of projects, choosing subjects of the research based on the real life of the learners, specifying the cooperative and collaborative tools and supporting collaborative learning, the creation and availability of various resources such as utilizing RSS and providing search engines, the possibility of developing contents by the learners, providing various learning tasks such as writing articles or proposals, emphasizing discovery learning to delegate learning responsibility to the learners, supporting metacognitive processes during instructional period through presenting essential training to familiarize with metacognitive techniques before and during the presentation of the materials and utilizing features such as using blogs, the possibility of loading pictures and texts by members and the possibility of online receiving of information by mobile phones and other means of mobile communication. In order to design the e-learning environments by combining the three theories of Behavioral, Cognitivism, and Constructivism, a combinational model including 12 components was presented including "the ultimate goal setting", "analysis (including goal and the learner analysis", "content production", "organization", teaching-learning strategies", "presentation", "learning transfer to the real world", "interaction and control", "technology components", "sources", "support", " evaluation and revision (including diagnosis evaluation at the beginning of the course, evolving evaluation during the course and final evaluation continuous phases).
Main comparison to the similar studies
In the first part, those features of instructional design models which were based on Behavioral, Cognitive and Constructive theories, which were capable of application in electronic learning, were investigated and listed. The results in this section are in accordance with other studies [13, 14, 16]. In the second part, a model containing 12 main components and 135 subcomponents was presented. The first component was to determine the ultimate goals of course. The ultimate goals have been considered as the first component of instructional design [18]. The second component was analysis. Determination of the characteristics and individual differences of learners such as learning style, computer literacy, and familiarity with ethics in e-learning has been emphasized [19-24]. The third component was producing contents based on three levels of goals setting (elementary, intermediate and advanced) that the details of each level are consistent with other studies [25-28]. The fourth component was organization. The principles of effective organization of contents and activities such as simple to complex organization, conclusion and summarization, application of advance organizers, content maps and considering the organizational and location cues in the program is in accordance with the previous studies [15, 27, 29, 30]. The fifth component was the learning-teaching strategies including review, training, immediate feedback and reinforcement (Behaviorism; elementary level), learning metacognitive skills, multiple representation of the content, using many examples and paying attention to learners’ motivation (Cognitivism; intermediate level) and exploratory learning, problem-solving and emphasizing the social interaction (Constructivism; advanced level). The components are consistent with other studies [15, 31-35]. The sixth component was presenting educational materials to the learners and the seventh component was transferring of learning to the real world. Providing a variety of tasks based on the real life of the learners, emphasizing on self-directed learning, and using a variety of examples and different computer simulations, are of the principles of learning transfer [12]. The eighth component was interaction and control (according to the elementary, intermediate and advanced goals) which was related to content, organization and learning-teaching strategies. Different types of interaction and high learners control over their learning process can be provided via using digital technology [36]. The ninth component was technology. The tenth component was the learning sources. Applying the characteristics of Web2 is desirable in this section. This component is consistent with other studies [15, 37]. The eleventh component was support. Since in e-learning environments, learners do not have the opportunity of face to face interaction, this component seems necessary for all the learners in all levels [15]. The last component was evaluation and revision. Evaluation of the whole course is done immediately after receiving educational goals and it covers all the components of the model. Evaluation of the learners is done in three phases of diagnostic evaluation, formative evaluation and summative evaluation. This component is in accordance with different models of educational design [3, 5, 15, 18].
Suggestions
Non-declared
Limitations
Non-declared
Conclusions
The combinational model for designing e-learning environments based on Behavioral, Cognitive and Constructive theories has 12 components. There is a logical connection between the factors involved in e-learning such as software and hardware substructures, sources, support and factors based on effective pedagogical principles in e-learning such as setting goals, analyzing the differences in abilities and skills of the learners in time of enrollment, teaching learning strategies, methods of interaction and control, testing and evaluation of courses and learning of students which provides a detailed and comprehensive investigation of this type of learning.
Acknowledgments
The researchers appreciate the cooperation of instructors at the University of Isfahan, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Allameh Tabatabai University, and Islamic Azad University (Khorasgan Branch).
Conflict of interest
Non-declared
Ethical Permissions
Non-declared
Funding Sources
Non-declared