@2024 Afarand., IRAN
ISSN: 2008-2630 Iranian Journal of War & Public Health 2014;6(3):87-93
ISSN: 2008-2630 Iranian Journal of War & Public Health 2014;6(3):87-93
Prediction of Cognitive and Motivational Functions of Sports Imagery in Veteran Basketball Players
ARTICLE INFO
Article Type
Original ResearchAuthors
Rostami R. (* )Rezaee M. (1 )
(* ) Physical Education Department, Education and Psychology Faculty, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
(1 ) Physical Education Department, Education and Psychology Faculty, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
Correspondence
Article History
Received: April 19, 2013Accepted: March 10, 2014
ePublished: April 2, 2014
BRIEF TEXT
… [1-4] Exercises result in storage and retrieval of information in memory; and as a result, motion skills are produced based on the previous learned practices [5]. … [6] Psychological skills include preparation of thoughts and feelings in order to keep calm and confident during technical skill performances [7, 8]. … [9-10] Sport imagery is defined as a process to use all senses in order to improve sport performance through the exercise via creation or renovation of the sport experience in mind [11-13]. Imagery refers to cognitive parameters and creation of motion program in the central nervous system, based on symbolic learning theory. However, it refers to motion parameters similar to the real motion, according to psychoneuromuscular theory [13, 17].
… [18-35]. According to Hanrahan study mental skill training shows more effectiveness on amputee athlete using wheelchair [36]. The results of study by Shearer et al. show the effectiveness of expertise imagery interventions on the athlete’s individual perceptions and social efficiency [37]. It seems that other studies have focused on the mental profile of the athletes with disabilities [2-4].
The aim of this study was to predict cognitive and motivational functions of sport imagery, based on age, visual and motor imagery ability in Iranian veteran basketball players.
The method is correlational descriptive type.
The study was done on all the veteran basketball players participating in national competitions held in Shiraz city in 2007.
Subjects included 40 volunteer players from the provinces of the country, participated in the study using census method.
Demographic, motor imagery (VMIQ), visual imagery (VVIQ) and sport imagery (SIQ) questionnaires, were used Issac’s VMIQ questionnaire was used to assess motor imagery ability [38]. It contains 24 items. This questionnaire is scored as Likert’s five-score scale from 1 (entirely obvious) to 5 (very low obvious), based on imagery clarity. The test’s reliability was reported 0.76, and its validity was reported 0.81 by Issac et al. [38]. The test’s reliability was obtained 0.87 in a study by Hemayat Talab et al. [39]. Marx’s VVIQ questionnaire was used to assess visual imagery ability [40]. This questionnaire contains 16 items, and it is scored, concerning Likert’s five-score scale from 1 (entirely obvious) to 5 (very low obvious), based on imagery clarity. The domain of the scores is from 16 to 80, and the lower score indicates high imagery ability. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient has been reported 0.88 by Campos for this scale [41]. The questionnaire’s reliability has been computed 0.82 by Hemayat Talab et al. in 2007 [39]. Hall’s SIQ questionnaire was used to assess sport imagery [19]. This questionnaire contains 30 questions with 5 functions, scored according to Likert’s 7- score scale. Sport imagery have 5 functions including “cognitive specific” (CS), “cognitive general” (CG), “motivational specific” (MS), “motivational general-mastery” (MG-M), and “motivational-general arousal” (MG-A) imageries. Validity of the questionnaire was assessed 0.49 by Rostami et al. [42]. SPSS 16 software was used for statistical analyses. Spearman correlation coefficient was used to assess the correlation between age, motor imagery ability (internal and external), and visual imagery ability (opened and closed eyes) variables with sport imagery functions. The predictive ability of sport imagery functions was assessed based on “age”, “visual imagery”, “and motor imagery” variables, based on the results of the correlation coefficient, and using of regression equation step by step.
The mean age and height of the studied athletes were 39.9±5.9 years and 171.9±8.9 cm, respectively. There was a correlation between “age” and “cognitive specific”, “motivational general-arousal”, “motivational general-mastery”, and “general sport” imagery functions. There was correlation between “opened-eyes visual imagery ability” and “motivational specific”, “cognitive general”, and “general sport” imagery functions. The highest average score belonged to “motivational specific imagery” and the lowest average belonged to “cognitive general imagery”. “Age” was predictive for “motivational specific”, “motivational general-arousal”, “motivational general-mastery”, and “general sport” imagery functions. “Opened-eyes visual imagery ability” was predictive for “motivational specific imagery” function.
Results of a study by Rostami and Rezaie, shows an increase in mental imagery and in motivational general-mastery imagery among girl student basketball players with aging [24], are in contrast with the results of the present study. Results of some studies, concerning a reduction in motivational specific imagery as a result of low clarity of the opened-eyes visual imagery [26, 27, 31], are consistent with the related results of the present study. Utilization rate of general motivational-mastery function is lower than motivational specific among athletes, is confirmed by a study done by Gregg et al. [26]. Results of the present study that show that motivational specific function and cognitive general function have the highest and the lowest averages respectively, are consistent with those of Salmon et al. [20]. Results of the present study, that show a reduction in motivational general-expertise function with aging, are consistent with those of Gregg et al. [23]. Barr and Hall, demonstrates simultaneous usage of both cognitive and motivational functions [22], which are inconsistent with the results of the present study. White and Hardy, show that using imagery among athletes concerning cognitive and motivational functions [21], are inconsistent with the results of the present study. Results of a study done by Gregg et al., concerning mediation role of visual and sensory-motion imagery abilities [23], are consistent with the results of the present study, showing a more important role for clarity in visual imagery than other functions.
According to the obtained results, the age has to be considered as an effective item in psychological studies. It is necessary that mental imagery ability to be assessed as a mediator variable in the studies.
The small population was of the limitations of the present study and might affect the results. In addition, due to the less number of same studies, few comparisons with other studies were possible.
There is a correlation between sport imagery functions with “age” and “opened-eyes visual imagery ability” variables. On the other hand, sport imagery functions (“motivational specific”, “motivational general-mastery”, and “motivational general-arousal”) are predicted according to “age”, i. e. the use of the aforementioned functions decreases by aging. Opened-eyes visual imagery predicts “motivational specific” function, and motivational specific function decreases by opened-eyes imagery decreasing.
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TABLES and CHARTS
Show attach fileCITIATION LINKS
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[19]Hall CR, Mack DM, Paivio A, Hausenblas HA. Imagery use by athletes: Development of the sport imagery questionnaire. Int J Sport Psychol. 1998;29(1):73-89.
[20]Salmon J, Hall CR, Haslam I. The use of imagery by soccer players. J Applied Sport Psychol. 1994;6(1):116-33.
[21]White A, Hardy L. Use of imagery perspectives on the learning & performance of different motor skills. Brit J Psychol. 1995;86(2):169-80.
[22]Barr K, Hall C. The use of imagery by rowers. Int Sport Psychol. 1992;23(3):243-61.
[23]Gregg M, Hall C, McGowan E, Hall N. The relationship between imagery ability and imagery use among athletes. J Applied Sport Psychol. 2011;23(2):129-41.
[24]Rostami R, Rezaie M. A comparison of different functions of sport imagery based on the experience level and the player’s position among female basketball players of league one in Iran universities. Middle East J Sci Res. 2013;14(9):1235-41.
[25]Issac AR. Mental practice- does it work in the field?. Sport Psychol. 1992;6(2):192-8.
[26]Gregg M, Hall C, Nederhof E. The imagery ability, imagery use, and performance relationship. Sport Psychol. 2005;19:93-9.
[27]Robin N, Dominique L, Toussaint L, Blandin Y, Guillot A, Le Her M. Effect of motor imagery training on service return accuracy in tennis: The role of imagery ability. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007;5(2):175-86.
[28]Kirkby RJ. Wheelchair netball: Motives and attitudes of competitors with and without disabilities. Aust Psychol. 1995;30(2):109-12.
[29]Hanrahan SJ. Practical considerations for working with athletes with disabilities. Sport Psychol. 1998;12(3):346-57.
[30]Henschen KP, Horvat M, Roswal G. Psychological profiles of the United States wheelchair basketball team. Int J Sport Psychol. 1992;23(2):128-37.
[31]Martin JJ, Mushett CA. Social support mechanisms among athletes with disabilities. Adapt Phys Act Q. 1996;13(1):74-83.
[32]Watanabe KT, Cooper RA, Vosse AJ, Baldini FD, Robertson RN. Training practices of athletes who participated in the national wheelchair athletic association training camps. Adapt Phys Act Q. 1992;9(3):249-60.
[33]Vealey RS, Hayashi SW, Garner-Holman M, Giacobbi P. Sources of sport-confidence: Conceptualization and instrument development. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 1998;20:54-80.
[34]Asken MJ. The challenge of the physically challenged: Delivering sport psychology services to physically disabled athletes. Sport Psychol. 1991;5(4):370-81.
[35]Jefferies P, Gallagher P, Dunne S. The paralympic athlete: A systematic review of the psychosocial literature. Prosthet Orthot Int. 2012;36(3):278-89.
[36]Hanrahan SJ. Psychological skills training for competitive wheelchair and amputee athletes. Aust Psychol. 1995;30(2):96-101.
[37]Shearer D, Mellalieu S, Shearer C, Roderique-Davies G. The effects of a video-aided imagery intervention upon collective efficacy in an international paralympic wheelchair basketball team. J Imagery Res Sport Phys Act. 2009;4(1):1-25.
[38]Isaac AR, Marks DF, Russell DG. An instrument for assessing the imagery of movement: The vividness of movement imagery questionnaire. J Ment Imagery. 1986;10(4):23-30.
[39]Hemayat talab R, Sheikh M, Movahedi A, Asad M. Effect of transposition of mental practice on learning perceptual-motor skills with a focus on internal and external imagery. Res Sport Sci. 2007;4(14):139-51. [Persian]
[40]Marks DF. Visual imagery differences in the recall of pictures. Br J Psychol. 1973;64(1):17-24.
[41]Campos A. The vividness of imagery in a person who has been blind for three years. J Vis Impair Blind. 2004;98(5):1211-7.
[42]Rostami R, Vaez Mousavi M, Bahram A, Kazem Nezhad A. Effect of cognitive and motivational imagery along with physical practice on the performance and learning of basketball free throw. Mov Sci Sport. 2009;14(7):39-50. [Persian]
[2]Fung L, Fu FH. Psychological determinates between wheelchair sport finalists and non-finalists. Int J Sport Psychol. 1995;26(4):568-79.
[3]Jacobs PL. Effects of resistance and endurance training in persons with paraplegia. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009;41(5):992-7.
[4]Paulsen P, French R, Sherrill C. Comparison of wheelchair athletes and nonathletes on selected mood states. Percept Mot Skills. 1990;71(3):1160-2.
[5]Gregg M, Hall C, Butler A. The MIQ-RS: A suitable option for examining movement imagery ability. Evid Based Complementary Altern Med. 2010;7(2):249-57.
[6]Guthrie ER. The psychology of learning. New York: Harper & Row; 1952.
[7]Wrisberg CA. Sport skill introduction for coaches. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2007.
[8]Martin Ginis KA, Moritz SE, Hall CR. Imagery use in sport: A literature review & applied model. J Sport Psychol. 1999;13(3):245-68.
[9]Bastos T, Corredeira R, Probst M, Fonseca AM. Elite disability sport coaches’ views on sport psychology. Int J Psychol Stud. 2014;6(1):33-44.
[10]Cumming J, Hall C. Deliberate imagery practice: The development of imagery skills in competitive athletes. J Sports Sci. 2002;20(2):137-45.
[11]Taylor J, Wilson GS. Applying sport psychology: Four perspectives. Champaign: Human Kinetics; 2005.
[12]Watt AP, Spittle M, Jaakkola T, Morris T. Adopting Paivio's general analytic framework to examine imagery use in sport. J Imagery Res Sport Phys Act. 2008;3(1):1-15.
[13]Weinberg RS, Gould D. Foundation of sport and exercise psychology. 5th ed. Champaign: Human kinetics; 2011.
[14]Magill RA. Motor Learning: Concepts and applications. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies; 2002.
[15]Fery YA. Differentiating visual and kinesthetic imagery in mental practice. Can J Exp Psychol. 2003;57(1):1-10.
[16]Murphy SM, Fleck SJ, Dudley G, Callister R. Psychological and performance concomitants of increased volume training in athletes. J Applied Sport Psychol. 1990;2(1):34-50.
[17]Popescu A. The effect of different imagery ratios on learning and performing a gymnastic floor routine. [dissertation]. Michigan: Eastern Michigan University; 2005.
[18]Paivio A. Cognitive and motivational functions of imagery in human performance. Can J Applied Sport Sci. 1985;10(4):22-8.
[19]Hall CR, Mack DM, Paivio A, Hausenblas HA. Imagery use by athletes: Development of the sport imagery questionnaire. Int J Sport Psychol. 1998;29(1):73-89.
[20]Salmon J, Hall CR, Haslam I. The use of imagery by soccer players. J Applied Sport Psychol. 1994;6(1):116-33.
[21]White A, Hardy L. Use of imagery perspectives on the learning & performance of different motor skills. Brit J Psychol. 1995;86(2):169-80.
[22]Barr K, Hall C. The use of imagery by rowers. Int Sport Psychol. 1992;23(3):243-61.
[23]Gregg M, Hall C, McGowan E, Hall N. The relationship between imagery ability and imagery use among athletes. J Applied Sport Psychol. 2011;23(2):129-41.
[24]Rostami R, Rezaie M. A comparison of different functions of sport imagery based on the experience level and the player’s position among female basketball players of league one in Iran universities. Middle East J Sci Res. 2013;14(9):1235-41.
[25]Issac AR. Mental practice- does it work in the field?. Sport Psychol. 1992;6(2):192-8.
[26]Gregg M, Hall C, Nederhof E. The imagery ability, imagery use, and performance relationship. Sport Psychol. 2005;19:93-9.
[27]Robin N, Dominique L, Toussaint L, Blandin Y, Guillot A, Le Her M. Effect of motor imagery training on service return accuracy in tennis: The role of imagery ability. Int J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2007;5(2):175-86.
[28]Kirkby RJ. Wheelchair netball: Motives and attitudes of competitors with and without disabilities. Aust Psychol. 1995;30(2):109-12.
[29]Hanrahan SJ. Practical considerations for working with athletes with disabilities. Sport Psychol. 1998;12(3):346-57.
[30]Henschen KP, Horvat M, Roswal G. Psychological profiles of the United States wheelchair basketball team. Int J Sport Psychol. 1992;23(2):128-37.
[31]Martin JJ, Mushett CA. Social support mechanisms among athletes with disabilities. Adapt Phys Act Q. 1996;13(1):74-83.
[32]Watanabe KT, Cooper RA, Vosse AJ, Baldini FD, Robertson RN. Training practices of athletes who participated in the national wheelchair athletic association training camps. Adapt Phys Act Q. 1992;9(3):249-60.
[33]Vealey RS, Hayashi SW, Garner-Holman M, Giacobbi P. Sources of sport-confidence: Conceptualization and instrument development. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 1998;20:54-80.
[34]Asken MJ. The challenge of the physically challenged: Delivering sport psychology services to physically disabled athletes. Sport Psychol. 1991;5(4):370-81.
[35]Jefferies P, Gallagher P, Dunne S. The paralympic athlete: A systematic review of the psychosocial literature. Prosthet Orthot Int. 2012;36(3):278-89.
[36]Hanrahan SJ. Psychological skills training for competitive wheelchair and amputee athletes. Aust Psychol. 1995;30(2):96-101.
[37]Shearer D, Mellalieu S, Shearer C, Roderique-Davies G. The effects of a video-aided imagery intervention upon collective efficacy in an international paralympic wheelchair basketball team. J Imagery Res Sport Phys Act. 2009;4(1):1-25.
[38]Isaac AR, Marks DF, Russell DG. An instrument for assessing the imagery of movement: The vividness of movement imagery questionnaire. J Ment Imagery. 1986;10(4):23-30.
[39]Hemayat talab R, Sheikh M, Movahedi A, Asad M. Effect of transposition of mental practice on learning perceptual-motor skills with a focus on internal and external imagery. Res Sport Sci. 2007;4(14):139-51. [Persian]
[40]Marks DF. Visual imagery differences in the recall of pictures. Br J Psychol. 1973;64(1):17-24.
[41]Campos A. The vividness of imagery in a person who has been blind for three years. J Vis Impair Blind. 2004;98(5):1211-7.
[42]Rostami R, Vaez Mousavi M, Bahram A, Kazem Nezhad A. Effect of cognitive and motivational imagery along with physical practice on the performance and learning of basketball free throw. Mov Sci Sport. 2009;14(7):39-50. [Persian]